Nancy Jardine Author: #A2ZChallenge U is for Ultimus

U is for Ultimus - limes

Theme: Ancient Roman Scotland during the Flavian era

From my Latin Dictionary

ultimus: superl adj farthest, most remote, the end of

limes: path between fields, boundary, path, track, frontier, boundary line

When we think of the Ancient Romans creating frontier lines in Britain the most readily thought of permanent, huge boundary is most likely that of Hadrian’s Wall. It is indeed an impressive structure that has withstood weather, and other attacks, for around nineteen hundred years, but it was not the only frontier the Romans physically constructed, or nominally set, on the landscape. I'd love to write here about Hadrian's Wall, but since it was built c. A.D. 122, some 40 years after Agricola was in Scotland, I'll leave the subject for another time!

As the Roman legions made their progress northwards from the south-east coast of England, after the invasion of Emperor Claudius in A.D. 43, they set new confines of the empire time after time when they totally overran and subdued tribe after tribe. In addition to building fortresses, forts, fortlets and watchtowers on subdued territory, the Romans also began their systematic road building programme. Effective roads meant that Roman installations could be more easily garrisoned and necessary supplies regularly delivered. The earliest Roman built roads were certainly great communication lines but were probably not considered as official and fixed boundaries.

Fosse Way - Wikimedia Commons

I’ve read of the Roman road named the Fosse Way as being, in a sense, an early western boundary line in southern Britannia but its purpose and function as a frontier doesn’t really compare with the later-built Hadrian’s Wall. Whether, or not, it started out as a ditch boundary and then was later filled-in to become a paved road…or... whether the road was built alongside a ditch, the ditch being on the ‘barbarian’ side of the road – the word Fosse comes from the Latin meaning ditch.

I’m sure the locals would have been highly impressed if they’d been watching the Fosse Way’s construction progress across their lands, probably even terrified by what it represented. But since Roman military installations were built on both sides of the Fosse Way, it wasn’t a real frontier barrier. The Fosse Way was a remarkable road, and personally I’d love to know what made the Ancient Roman Governor of Britannia (Aulus Plautius or Ostorius Scapula?) settle on that exact route – apart from the fact that it was a very long and direct link from the fortress at Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter) to Lindum Colonia (Lincoln), with Aquae Sulis (Bath) being one very notable place along the route. I’d also love to get confirmation that the Fosse Way was first begun by the Legio II Augusta at Isca under the command of Titus Flavius Vespasianus (who later became emperor).

Between A.D. 43 and 69, nominal boundaries were fluid and were likely temporarily established after each new campaign had resulted in the conquering of more tribal lands, those territories subsumed into the Roman Empire via treaties and set conditions imposed on the vanquished (or acquiescent) tribes. New territory seems to have been ‘policed’ by the auxiliary and legionary soldiers who manned newly installed fortresses, forts, fortlets and watchtowers which were soon peppered across recently occupied territory. It was overseen by the soldiers of Rome, until the local tribal leaders established and maintained the Roman laws and regulations that were required of the tribes.

All was probably not as simple as that since there were sufficient recorded incidents of tribal unrest and conflict which seem to have caused some localised retreat of the Roman legions till the territory was retaken by them at a later date. (e.g. parts of Wales eventually by Gnaeus Iulius Agricola)

From A.D. 69 onwards the Romans turned their attention to conquering the tribes of the Brigantes Federation (Yorkshire/ Cumbria/ Northumberland) and then those inhabiting present-day southern Scotland. The expansion of the Roman Empire continued in a similar fashion over the next decade – tribes were conquered, some perhaps were brought into the Roman Empire relatively easily (Votadini?). And in the usual Roman expansion pattern forts, fortlets and watchtowers were built.

By around A.D. 80/81 the land between the River Forth and the River Clyde, the shortest stretch across Scotland (Caledonia) had been invaded and fort-building was established. Whether this line of forts was considered as a limes (pl, limites), at the time, is something I’ve yet to find out. There’s no evidence of a physical joining of them that's been found from Agricolan times (as far as I can tell) but any roads constructed between them may have sufficed as a Flavian boundary. The Ancient Roman writer Cornelius Tacitus wrote that by c. A.D. 81 the whole area of the Central Belt of Scotland (Forth/Clyde) was strongly fortified under Roman hands, as was all territory south of it.

Tacitus hints in his Agricola that the tribes to the north of the Forth/Clyde area were more resistant and rebellious.

By this point in time (c. 81) Agricola had been in office as Governor of Britannia for probably slightly longer than the usual duration of approx. three years. If he had been recalled back to Rome at this point, a fortified line of defences between the Rivers Forth and Clyde would have been a reasonable stop point for a 'proper' and more long lasting frontier.

As well as having more rebellious inhabitants to the north of the Forth /Clyde area, it maybe wasn’t entirely clear just what the ultimate benefits would be for Rome if they kept invading further northwards in Caledonia. It's very possible that the mountainous north may not have yielded the rewards the Roman empire desired...and needed.

By the time Agricola was at the central belt of Scotland he would probably have had some advance knowledge, from scouting forays, that Rome would not get decent wheat or cereal crops from the mountain regions, though he had yet to prove it. Also, at this point of the invasion, he perhaps had no knowledge of the extent of other supplies that could be claimed by the Roman Empire – useful and precious ores, or other minerals, that could be extracted from the mountain fringes.

Archaeology indicates that Agricola continued his Caledonian campaigns for at least another 3 years.

There has been some controversy over the purpose of the installations which Agricola built north of the Forth/ Clyde area. In my #A2ZChallenge 2019 post G is for GaskRidge and Glen Blockers there are more details about the two different lines of defences.

Questions have been asked about those sometimes referred to as the Highland Line, those from Drumquhassle to Inchtuthil. Were they erected as a barrier to deter movement of the natives from the mountain passes of the Caledonians to the lower lands of the Venicones and Damnonii (or whatever the tribes actually called themselves)? Or, were the forts built at glen entrances for convenient access when the Romans were ready to send in advance forces to vanquish those who lived beyond?

There seems to have been slightly less controversy over the line of defences generally named the Gask Ridge, and sometimes the Gask Frontier, the installations from Doune to Bertha. From my reasonable amount of reading (virtually every piece of information on the subject I can lay hands on) there is better consensus that the smaller watchtowers, tiny fortlets and forts of the Gask line were probably built with greater intentions of the line being a limes, even if a temporary one till General Agricola made further advances in the north-east of Scotland. Some of the installations were set at very short distances apart, of approximately a Roman mile (see map above) and were, in a sense, like an ‘un-joined’ boundary. No evidence has been found (as far as I know) of any wooden fences or ditch ramparts between them, but many would have been visible to each other, and from some a sentry would have been able to see a good distance depending on the topography of the land.

Early archaeological problems over the perceptions of these defences were hampered by a lack of surety over who had built them. Some were thought to have been built during the Antonine invasions and some during the Agricolan phases, which does allow for more uncertainty over whether the respective Roman commanders considered them effective enough to be termed a frontier.

When the two sets of installations are taken as combined defences built by Agricolan forces, then it seems more realistic that the Highland Line was intended as a frontier barrier to prevent attack on Roman legions coming from the mountain passes, but that they were also built to enable further invasion into the Caledon mountain ranges as and when that was deemed timely. The Gask Ridge forts may have provided a safe route for Roman troops advancing further north. Since the tribal territory we would currently term Fife has few Roman installations built on it, the supposition is that the tribe/ tribes who lived there (possibly southern Venicones) may have been happy to make immediate treaties with Rome, with or without bloodshed being spilt. However, it wouldn’t have been prudent for the Romans to ignore the possibility of attack on their troops from that direction. The forts of the Gask Ridge are perfectly placed to defend enemies approaching from a Fife direction, or from the distinct line of the Caledonian mountains.

The Ancient Roman writer Cornelius Tacitus writes of an attack on a fort, possibly in the vicinity of the Highland Line/ Gask Ridge, which almost decimated the Legio IX. According to Tacitus, if General Agricola hadn’t been close by to avert complete disaster the result of the Caledon attack would have been much more devastating. Tacitus, in fairly typical form, doesn’t give enough details and leaves the incident open to much speculation! (Read #3 of my Celtic Fervour Series)

Therefore, the first realistic Roman Frontier in Britannia may well have been the un-joined forts on the Highland Line/Gask Ridge area of

Scotland.

Or, where Emperor Antoninus Pius had the Antonine Wall built during the Britannic governorship of Quintus Lollius Urbicus c. A.D. 142, when the official boundary frontier of around twenty years duration moved from Hadrian's Wall back up north to the Forth/ Clyde area!

Writing about the Antonine Wall, or Hadrian’s Wall, will be for another day since they were definitely not Flavian.

I'll finish this post with a favourite image of mine that I've not yet been able to use during this 2019 #A2ZChallenge. The frieze that this partial is taken from adorns the entrance hall of the National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, Scotland. The artist William Hole was commissioned to paint the frieze in c. 1897, for what was a brand new gallery, his remit being to include every notable person in Scottish History. The frieze below the gallery railings begins with a mythical Caledonia female figure followed by figures from the Stone Age onwards. The first named 'Scottish' person is Calgacus, the name given by Cornelius Tacitus to the leader of the Caledonian allies (Iron Age Tribes) who confronted Agricola in battle at Mons Graupius.

Enjoy!