D is for Domitian
Theme: Ancient Roman Scotland during the Flavian era
The Flavian era refers to the three emperors who ruled from A.D. 69
through to 96 - Vespasian; Titus; Domitian.
1) Vespasian - Titus Flavius
Vespasianus
After the suicide of Emperor Nero in June A.D. 68 (or assisted death as some believe), the Ancient Roman Empire was in turmoil. Nero
left no named heir so it became a case of ‘dog-eat-dog’ supremacy between those
who commanded the greatest legionary forces to be declared the new emperor.
First up came Galba; who was supplanted by Otho; who was then ousted by
Vitellius. Vitellius lasted only a short while before Vespasian wrested
control.
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| Titus Flavius Vespasianus- Wikimedia Commons |
Vespasian, a well-seasoned
military commander, was declared emperor in A.D. 69, at the age of 60. He then ruled
over the empire for the next decade, the turmoil of 69 being notoriously named
the Year of the Four Emperors.
Vespasian stabilised the unrest across the empire relatively quickly, and the fortunes of theRoman Empire
strengthened. Though much is not known of his rule, Vespasian maintained the peace and stability amongst the legions, his son Titus instrumental in subduing the unrest in Judea. Across the empire, Vespasian embarked on successful military and civic projects. Not all were popular, like the 'Urine Tax' in Rome, but the money collected helped fill the public coffers so that Vespasian had funds to obliterate the legacy of spendthrift buildings created by Emperor Nero. The site of Nero's lavish golden palace (Domus Aurea) became the Colosseum.
Successful and intense expansion of the western empire boundary began, with determined invasions of northern Britannia– the island of Britannia being in the charge of Governors/Consuls Bolanus (from c.69-71); Cerialis (c.71-73), Frontinus (c.74-77) and Agricola (c.77-84).
Vespasian stabilised the unrest across the empire relatively quickly, and the fortunes of the
Successful and intense expansion of the western empire boundary began, with determined invasions of northern Britannia– the island of Britannia being in the charge of Governors/Consuls Bolanus (from c.69-71); Cerialis (c.71-73), Frontinus (c.74-77) and Agricola (c.77-84).
Vespasian died in A.D. 79, at the age of 70, claiming (so it was said) "Vae, puto deus fio."
– “Dear me, I think I’m becoming a god!”
2) Titus - also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus
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| Titus- Capitoline Museum Wikimedia Commons |
Older son of Vespasian, Titus
became emperor in A.D.79, at the age of 40. He had been well-regarded as a
military commander during Vespasian’s reign (though his personal affairs with
women, after his two marriages, raised a few eyebrows in Rome- Pompeii and Herculaneum Rome
Even though the reign was very short, Titus managed to complete projects begun
by his father, notably the Colosseum. During his short time as emperor, Empire
expansion continued in northern Britannia with General Agricola as Governor and
Commander of the Britannic legions. Titus died of fever in 81, just after the
inauguration of the Colosseum and the 100 days worth of games to celebrate its
opening. (Though some believe his death was from poison and not natural causes)
3) Domitian - Titus Flavius Domitianus
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| Domitian Wikimedia Commons |
Aged 30, Domitian became emperor
in A.D. 81. His reign was somewhat different from the firm control of
Vespasian, and the easy popularity of Titus. As second son, Domitian had grown
up in the shadow of a well-respected, successful father and a brother who
had acquitted himself admirably in both military and civic posts. Domitian’s
upbringing seems to have lacked the nurturing towards political power that was
given to his older brother Titus, so he was in many ways ill-prepared to become
emperor at the age of 30. Growing up, he seems to have been of solitary nature, inclined to be domineering, secretive, suspicious and manic - and this appears to have magnified in his later reign. Though he held official posts
during the reigns of both his father and brother, they were largely honorary
and allowed him little experience in executing command.
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| The Triumph of Titus- L. Alma -Tadema Robed Vespasian pontifex maximus> Domitian in military garb with 1st wife Domitia Longina> Titus also in religious robes |
There's no evidence of the military training his father and brother had, but after he became emperor Domitian seemed confident
enough to constantly send correspondence to the commanders of the legions
across the empire, sending recommendations and giving advice. When he decided
to personally go on campaign – the Chatti being troublesome in Germania – he sought to improve his military standing.
Though other generals likely had a different opinion, he claimed 'success' and
added ‘Germanicus’ to his empirical
titles.
During the early years of his
reign he curbed the power of the Senate in Rome Rome
The fire in A.D. 80 had destroyed
a number of prominent buildings in Rome which Domitian was determined to replace. But as well as being intent on
overseeing a huge building programme of civic buildings, palaces, temples etc, he also set out to improve cultural aspects of Roman society. He revived
public banqueting ( the free food was very popular) and he set up new 'games' like the Capitoline Games, and
instigated other public entertainments.
His ambitions reached out across
the empire. Though the military campaigns during his time were largely
defensive, he was seeking the glory of Augustan success without any particular
expansionist warfare being involved. He gained some popularity
amongst the legions, spending around three of his fifteen ruling years actively on
campaign. Of course, raising the pay of the soldiers by around a third might
have been the best measure to increase his benevolent status!
His domineering control seems to have become an obsession and he embarked on the eradication of people who didn't agree with his policies - though Tacitus' opinion was that executions happened all through Domitian's reign and not just nearer the end of it. Persecutions abounded and executions and banishments resulted. Eventually, in A.D. 96, a conspiracy against him arose amongst court officials and Domitian was assassinated. According to the writer Suetonius, Domitian had been forewarned that his death would occur at midday. After the auspice's warning, Domitian was always restless at noon and on the day of his death had asked the time of a servant. The servant lied, being in on the plot to kill him, to put the emperor at ease. His death, said to have been at the hands of a number of assailants was said to have occurred at midday!
Returning to my theme of Ancient Roman Scotland during the Flavian era:
Domitian’s decisions were critical regarding the developments, and lack of, in northern Britannia/Caledonia. General
Agricola's campaigns to extend the western empire boundary further
north into Caledonian territory were curtailed. Where Vespasian and Titus seem to
have consented to expend manpower, legionary time, physical effort and
money in pushing the Caledonian campaigns into more barbarian territory, Domitian policies were not of the same ilk. The withdrawal of troops appears to have been his priority. The Caledonian
expansion campaigns were geographically far from Rome whereas Dacia, on the Danube frontier (modern day Romania
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| General Agricola- statue at Bath, England Wikimedia Commons |
Back in Britannia, Agricola didn't have the forces he needed to completely quell and dominate Caledonia, and bring the whole island into the Roman Empire - even though he had been given permission to raise new auxiliary units. Agricola's soldiers were stretched too thin the length and breadth of Britannia.
Domitian recalled Agricola to Rome
in early A.D. 85. There is no evidence of Agricola's successor as Britannic Governor, and no record of what happened in Caledonia after Agricola's return to Rome. The huge not-quite-completed Legionary Fortress of Inchtuthil in Caledonia was partially dismantled and abandoned c. 86/87 but exactly where those troops were deployed after that is not certain. Caledonia, though, had been abandoned.
Domitian is mentioned a number of times by my character, Agricola, in Agricola’s Bane, Book
4 of my Celtic Fervour Series. Agricola
feels particularly hampered by Domitian’s constant demands and you can maybe tell that my Agricola has little love
for his current emperor! Here's a short excerpt from Agricola's Bane...
Agricola paced back
and forth in front of his tent. His ambition to tramp the whole of Britannia
was looking increasingly threatened. “In the name of Ceres! Could more
of the Taexali wedge to the north of here be farmed?”
The Tungrian
contemplated the question before answering. “Productive soil could be reclaimed
from the wetlands and rough moorland but the draining and tilling of it would
take the efforts of a lot of men. It would be a good few seasons’ work before
any decent crops would be yielded, and thereafter it would take a lot of sweat
to keep the new areas adequately drained. Not impossible, but hard going.”
“Native labour
we do not currently have our hands on!”
Helva was
circumspect. “No, sir.”
The update was
unfavourable, but Agricola planned a dispatch to Emperor Domitian. He could indicate
future grain stocks for the Empire, though only if sufficient workers were
available. Delegating his Britannic troops for such a lengthy secondment would
be impossible, especially since a cohort from each of his four permanent
legions in Britannia had recently been clawed away by Domitian. Those
soldiers were now in a hostile situation in Germania ,
and from the reports he was receiving they were unlikely to survive. Their
return to Britannia could not be counted on, but if slave labour could be found
for other reasons across the empire then it should not be impossible to obtain
more slaves for Taexali territory – once the new western boundary of the Roman Empire was officially established.
Unfortunately,
this kind of contemplation always soured his mood. The Legio IX was even
more undermanned than his other legions after Domitian’s removal of two cohorts
worth at the beginning of his sixth campaign season. He could never risk
putting the Legio IX in such a vulnerable position again, like it had
been in Venicones territory. They had almost been annihilated by the northern
barbarians.
Domitian might
readily suggest that troops raised from southern Britannic tribes should be
deployed for such a task, but he was not sure he could trust them in such
circumstances to give longer-term allegiance to Rome Caledon
Like a mangy
cur worrying at an already-stripped bone, Agricola could not move his thoughts on.
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