Thursday 4 April 2019

#A2ZChallenge D is for Domitian!



 D is for Domitian
Theme: Ancient Roman Scotland during the Flavian era

The Flavian era refers to the three emperors who ruled from A.D. 69 through to 96 - Vespasian; Titus; Domitian.

1) Vespasian - Titus Flavius Vespasianus
After the suicide of Emperor Nero in June A.D. 68 (or assisted death as some believe), the Ancient Roman Empire was in turmoil. Nero left no named heir so it became a case of ‘dog-eat-dog’ supremacy between those who commanded the greatest legionary forces to be declared the new emperor. First up came Galba; who was supplanted by Otho; who was then ousted by Vitellius. Vitellius lasted only a short while before Vespasian wrested control. 

Titus Flavius Vespasianus-
Wikimedia Commons
Vespasian, a well-seasoned military commander, was declared emperor in A.D. 69, at the age of 60. He then ruled over the empire for the next decade, the turmoil of 69 being notoriously named the Year of the Four Emperors.

Vespasian stabilised the unrest across the empire relatively quickly, and the fortunes of the Roman Empire strengthened. Though much is not known of his rule, Vespasian maintained the peace and stability amongst the legions, his son Titus instrumental in subduing the unrest in Judea.  Across the empire, Vespasian  embarked on successful military and civic projects. Not all were popular, like the 'Urine Tax' in Rome, but the money collected helped fill the public coffers so that Vespasian had funds to obliterate the legacy of spendthrift buildings created by Emperor Nero. The site of Nero's lavish golden palace (Domus Aurea) became the Colosseum.

Successful and intense expansion of the western empire boundary began, with determined invasions of northern Britannia– the island of Britannia being in the charge of Governors/Consuls Bolanus (from c.69-71); Cerialis (c.71-73), Frontinus (c.74-77) and Agricola (c.77-84). 

Vespasian died in A.D. 79, at the age of 70,  claiming (so it was said) "Vae, puto deus fio."  – “Dear me, I think I’m becoming a god!”  

 2) Titus - also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus
Titus- Capitoline Museum
Wikimedia Commons
Older son of Vespasian, Titus became emperor in A.D.79, at the age of 40. He had been well-regarded as a military commander during Vespasian’s reign (though his personal affairs with women, after his two marriages, raised a few eyebrows in Rome- e.g. his affair with the Jewish Queen Bearnice). Nonetheless, writers like Suetonius declared Titus a good emperor since he acquitted himself well during 79/80 which were years fraught with disasters. In 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted causing untold havoc in the region, to Pompeii and Herculaneum. Then in 80, a devastating fire wiped out part of Rome.

Even though the reign was very short, Titus managed to complete projects begun by his father, notably the Colosseum. During his short time as emperor, Empire expansion continued in northern Britannia with General Agricola as Governor and Commander of the Britannic legions. Titus died of fever in 81, just after the inauguration of the Colosseum and the 100 days worth of games to celebrate its opening. (Though some believe his death was from poison and not natural causes)

3) Domitian - Titus Flavius Domitianus

Domitian
Wikimedia Commons
What we know of Domitian comes from varying contemporary sources (Suetonius, Josephus, Tacitus...)  some of which are relatively complimentary, and others which are quite damning. This means he appears as a man with very many different facets to his nature. It also seems the case (according to those sources) that as Domitian’s reign progressed, his attitudes to his role, and to the people he ruled over was very contrary, unpredictable and often seriously volatile. He was said to have been competent, refined, but he's also referred to in the title of one recent book that I read as 'The Tragic Tyrant' (by Pat Southern). 


Aged 30, Domitian became emperor in A.D. 81. His reign was somewhat different from the firm control of Vespasian, and the easy popularity of Titus. As second son, Domitian had grown up in the shadow of a well-respected, successful father and a brother who had acquitted himself admirably in both military and civic posts. Domitian’s upbringing seems to have lacked the nurturing towards political power that was given to his older brother Titus, so he was in many ways ill-prepared to become emperor at the age of 30. Growing up, he seems to have been of solitary nature, inclined to be domineering, secretive, suspicious and manic - and this appears to have magnified in his later reign. Though he held official posts during the reigns of both his father and brother, they were largely honorary and allowed him little experience in executing command. 
 
The Triumph of Titus- L. Alma -Tadema
Robed Vespasian pontifex maximus>
Domitian in military garb with 1st wife Domitia Longina>
Titus also in religious robes
There's no evidence of the military training his father and brother had, but after he became emperor Domitian seemed confident enough to constantly send correspondence to the commanders of the legions across the empire, sending recommendations and giving advice. When he decided to personally go on campaign – the Chatti being troublesome in Germania – he sought to improve his military standing. Though other generals likely had a different opinion, he claimed 'success' and added ‘Germanicus’ to his empirical titles. 

During the early years of his reign he curbed the power of the Senate in Rome and moved the action to the imperial court. This meant more control for him but it made him very unpopular with the ruling, elite classes. His desire was to rule over a divine monarchy with himself a benevolent autocrat. His tenacious hold on the administration of the economy and finances of Rome also meant huge unpopularity but having better control meant having the ability to instigate the civic changes and building projects that he wanted to complete. His popularity with the masses was much improved when evidence of his new projects became visible and was shared by all in Rome.

The fire in A.D. 80 had destroyed a number of prominent buildings in Rome which Domitian was determined to replace. But as well as being intent on overseeing a huge building programme of civic buildings, palaces, temples etc, he also set out to improve cultural aspects of Roman society. He revived public banqueting ( the free food was very popular) and he set up new 'games' like the Capitoline Games, and instigated other public entertainments.

His ambitions reached out across the empire. Though the military campaigns during his time were largely defensive, he was seeking the glory of Augustan success without any particular expansionist warfare being involved. He gained some popularity amongst the legions, spending around three of his fifteen ruling years actively on campaign. Of course, raising the pay of the soldiers by around a third might have been the best measure to increase his benevolent status!

His domineering control seems to have become an obsession and he embarked on the eradication of people who didn't agree with his policies - though Tacitus' opinion was that executions happened all through Domitian's reign and not just nearer the end of it. Persecutions abounded and executions and banishments resulted. Eventually, in A.D. 96, a conspiracy against him arose amongst court officials and Domitian was assassinated. According to the writer Suetonius, Domitian had been forewarned that his death would occur at midday. After the auspice's warning, Domitian was always restless at noon and on the day of his death had asked the time of a servant. The servant lied, being in on the plot to kill him, to put the emperor at ease. His death, said to have been at the hands of a number of assailants was said to have occurred at midday! 

Returning to my theme of Ancient Roman Scotland during the Flavian era:

Domitian’s decisions were critical regarding the developments, and lack of, in northern Britannia/Caledonia. General Agricola's campaigns to extend the western empire boundary further north into Caledonian territory were curtailed. Where Vespasian and Titus seem to have consented to expend manpower, legionary time, physical effort and money in pushing the Caledonian campaigns into more barbarian territory,  Domitian policies were not of the same ilk. The withdrawal of troops appears to have been his priority. The Caledonian expansion campaigns were geographically far from Rome whereas insurrection in the lands of the Chatti of Lower Germania, and the rumbles of discord in Dacia, on the Danube frontier (modern day Romania), became far more pressing and only a few day's march from Rome! Domitian needed sufficient troops to suppress his continental enemies and clawed back cohort  after cohort from Britannia to satisfy that need.  

General Agricola-
statue at Bath, England
Wikimedia Commons
Back in Britannia, Agricola didn't have the forces he needed to completely quell and dominate Caledonia, and bring the whole island into the Roman Empire - even though he had been given permission to raise new auxiliary units. Agricola's soldiers were stretched too thin the length and breadth of Britannia. 

Domitian recalled Agricola to Rome in early A.D. 85. There is no evidence of Agricola's successor as Britannic Governor, and no record of what happened in Caledonia after Agricola's return to Rome. The huge not-quite-completed Legionary Fortress of Inchtuthil in Caledonia was partially dismantled and abandoned c. 86/87 but exactly where those troops were deployed after that is not certain. Caledonia, though, had been abandoned. 

Domitian is mentioned a number of times by my character, Agricola, in Agricola’s Bane, Book 4 of my Celtic Fervour Series. Agricola feels particularly hampered by Domitian’s constant demands and you can maybe tell that my Agricola has little love for his current emperor!  Here's a short excerpt from Agricola's Bane...

Agricola paced back and forth in front of his tent. His ambition to tramp the whole of Britannia was looking increasingly threatened. “In the name of Ceres! Could more of the Taexali wedge to the north of here be farmed?”
The Tungrian contemplated the question before answering. “Productive soil could be reclaimed from the wetlands and rough moorland but the draining and tilling of it would take the efforts of a lot of men. It would be a good few seasons’ work before any decent crops would be yielded, and thereafter it would take a lot of sweat to keep the new areas adequately drained. Not impossible, but hard going.”
“Native labour we do not currently have our hands on!”
Helva was circumspect. “No, sir.”
The update was unfavourable, but Agricola planned a dispatch to Emperor Domitian. He could indicate future grain stocks for the Empire, though only if sufficient workers were available. Delegating his Britannic troops for such a lengthy secondment would be impossible, especially since a cohort from each of his four permanent legions in Britannia had recently been clawed away by Domitian. Those soldiers were now in a hostile situation in Germania, and from the reports he was receiving they were unlikely to survive. Their return to Britannia could not be counted on, but if slave labour could be found for other reasons across the empire then it should not be impossible to obtain more slaves for Taexali territory – once the new western boundary of the Roman Empire was officially established.
Unfortunately, this kind of contemplation always soured his mood. The Legio IX was even more undermanned than his other legions after Domitian’s removal of two cohorts worth at the beginning of his sixth campaign season. He could never risk putting the Legio IX in such a vulnerable position again, like it had been in Venicones territory. They had almost been annihilated by the northern barbarians.
Domitian might readily suggest that troops raised from southern Britannic tribes should be deployed for such a task, but he was not sure he could trust them in such circumstances to give longer-term allegiance to Rome. The wily Caledon and allied neighbours might just be too persuasive, and might foist more rebellion.
Like a mangy cur worrying at an already-stripped bone, Agricola could not move his thoughts on.


Which of the 3 Flavian emperors would have gained your support? 

Till tomorrow and more of the #A2ZChallenge...

Slainthe! 


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